Punctuation: The colon, semi-colon, hyphen, comma and apostrophe
The following section looks at
the most common punctuation marks used in English. Using punctuation marks
correctly can greatly enhance both the clarity and the power of your writing.
To introduce an idea.
The colon has two main uses. Firstly it
is used to introduce an idea that is an explanation or continuation of the one
that comes before the colon. Have a look at these examples:
You are left with only one option:
Press on until you have mastered it.
There is one thing you need to know
about coleslaw: it looks and tastes like slurry.
In the above examples you have some
idea of what will come after the colon. It is important to note that the clause
that comes before the colon can stand alone and make complete sense on its own.
If the initial clause cannot stand alone
and make complete sense, you should not use a colon.
To introduce a list.
The second main use of the colon is to
introduce a list. You need to take care; many people assume that a colon always
precedes a list. This is not the case. Again it is important to remember that
the clause that precedes the colon must make complete sense on its own.
Have a look at these examples:
The potion contained some exotic
ingredients: snails' eyes, bats' tongues and garlic.
The magic potion contained sesame
seeds, bran flakes and coleslaw.
In the first sentence, the clause
preceding the colon has a subject and a predicate and makes complete sense on
its own 'The potion contained some exotic ingredients.' In the second sentence
a colon should not be used, as the clause that would precede it would not make
sense alone 'The magic potion contained'.
To introduce quoted material.
The colon has other uses: it can also
be used after a clause introducing quoted material. Have a look at this
example.
The director often used her favourite
quotation from Monty Python: 'I wasn't expecting the Spanish Inquisition.'
If the colon precedes a quotation, you should begin the language of that
quote with a capital letter.
The semicolon ( ; ) It is simple and easy
to use and should take you no more than a few minutes to master.
In complicated lists.
The semicolon can be used to sort out a
complicated list containing many items, many of which themselves contain
commas.
Have a look at this example:
In the meeting today we have Professor
Wilson, University of Barnsley, Dr Watson, University of Barrow in Furness,
Colonel Custard, Metropolitan Police and Dr Mable Syrup, Genius General,
University of Otago, New Zealand.
In a situation such as this, only the
mighty semicolon can unravel the mess.
In the meeting today we have Professor
Wilson, University of Barnsley; Dr Watson, University of Barrow in Furness;
Colonel Custard, Metropolitan Police and Dr Mable Syrup, Genius General,
University of Otago, New Zealand.
In most lists a comma is enough to
separate the items. In a complicated list like the one above, it is perfectly
acceptable to use the semicolon to make the list more understandable.
Separating
closely-related independent clauses.
The semicolon is also
used to connect two closely-related independent clauses. Have a look at this
example:
Terry always slept with the light on;
he was afraid of the dark.
The two clauses here are closely
connected but the link has not been made explicit. They could have been
separated by a full stop.
Terry always slept with the light on.
He was afraid of the dark.
They could have been connected by a
conjunction.
Terry always slept with the light on
because he was afraid of the dark.
Terry always slept with the light on,
as he was afraid of the dark.
In this instance we have changed the
second clause into a dependent clause; it is directly dependent on the first
clause.
If you are going to use a semicolon to
connect two clauses, it is very important that the two clauses are both
independent. That means that each clause has to be able to stand alone and make
complete sense without the other. If either one cannot stand alone, a
semi-colon cannot be used.
The comma ( , )
The comma is a much misused and often
over used piece of punctuation. There are several different situations in which
the comma is the correct piece of punctuation to use.
1. To separate the elements in a list
of three or more items.
The potion included gobstoppers,
chewing gum, bran flakes and coleslaw.
Omit the comma before the final 'and'
unless there is a danger that the last two items in the series will merge and
become indistinguishable without the comma.
His favourite puddings were ice apple
pie, rhubarb crumble, and jelly and ice cream.
In this sentence it is acceptable to
use a comma after the word crumble in order to indicate that the jelly and ice
cream is considered as a single item in the series.
I dedicate this work to my parents,
Marie Smith and God.
I dedicate this work to my parents,
Marie Smith, and God.
2. Before certain
conjunctions.
A comma should be
used before these conjunctions: and,
but, for, nor, yet, or, so to separate two independent clauses. They are
called co-ordinating conjunctions.
She was a fantastic cook, but she would
never be as good as her mother-in-law.
He hated his neighbours, so he never
invited them round.
A common mistake is to put the comma
after the conjunction. It is not usually necessary or indeed correct to use a
comma with the conjunction 'because'.
We all had to move to higher ground
because the floodwaters were rising quickly.
She really didn't feel hungry because
she had already eaten a hearty lunch.
However, there are occasions when a
'because clause' needs to be set off with a comma in order to avoid any
confusion of meaning.
I knew she would not be hungry, because
my sister works in a restaurant and had seen her eating a huge meal earlier in
the day.
In this example the reason for the
person in question not being hungry is nothing to do with the sister's working
in a restaurant as might be indicated if the comma were omitted.
3. To separate introductory elements in
a sentence.
Use a comma to separate introductory
elements in a sentence from the main part of that sentence.
Given the appalling weather conditions, Michael was lucky to survive the
storm.
As the night drew to a close, the clubbers wandered home.
Having mastered the use of the colon, it is important to make it work
for you in your writing.
If the introductory element of the sentence is very
short, it is permissible to omit the comma. If the introductory phrase is more
than about three words, the comma is recommended.
Shortly we will be leaving for the port.
After his nap Sam felt a lot better.
After a deliciously long nap in his hammock, Sam felt a lot better.
If a brief introductory phrase, however short, is
likely to merge with the rest of the sentence and confuse the reader, the comma
is required.
Inside the house was a total mess.
Inside, the house was a total mess.
Until the summer lectures will take place in the main building
Until the summer, lectures will take place in the main building.
The comma is also required if the introductory
phrase, however short, appears to modify the meaning of the sentence.
Sadly, the whole building was beginning to crumble. On the other hand, the new extension looked
fantastic.
4. To separate parenthetical elements
in a sentence.
The parenthetical
element (also known as an aside) is part of the sentence that can be removed
without changing the essential meaning of the sentence.
Sarah, the most intelligent pupil in the class, was always late for
school.
The pyramids, one of the wonders of the
ancient world, lie just outside Cairo.
If you are using a comma to do this, it is
important that the aside is opened and closed with a comma. A common mistake is
to omit the second comma.
His wife Jill was a high flyer in the city.
Jill, his wife, was a high flyer in the city.
The hyphen (-)
All words consisting of self
combined with a noun:
self-expression
self-confidence
self-consciousness
In adjectives that have been formed by
combining two words:
nineteenth-century history
self-paced learning exercises
off-the-peg suits
old-furniture salesman
Take care to use the hyphen only in
situations where the hyphenated word is used as an adjective as in the above
examples. Contrast these two examples:
He was an old-furniture salesman. (The
furniture is old)
He was an old furniture salesman. (The
salesman is old)
We have several verbs in English that
consist of a verb and a preposition. Have a look at these verbs and the nouns
that can be formed as a result:
to hold up ... This is a hold-up.
to wash up ... Go and do the
washing-up.
to tell off … The tutor gave him a good
telling-off.
The apostrophe ( ‘ )
The apostrophe is used to indicate that
a letter or letters has/have been removed.
He is = he's
I am = I'm
Do not = Don't
They have = They've
It is = It's
I would = I'd
Let us = Let's
She has = She's
Who is = who's
There are many more but all follow the
same rule. In examples such as "she'd" (the contracted form of she
would) the apostrophe replaces several letters.
The apostrophe showing possession.
If the possessor is a singular noun, an
-'s is added to the end of the noun. This is true for both proper nouns (people
and places beginning with a capital letter) and common nouns (other nouns).
Here are some examples of the apostrophe at work showing possession:
He found himself lost in Madrid's
winding streets.
I cannot understand Tim's point of
view.
The building's foundations were very
unstable.
The poet's work was highly regarded
around the world.
If the possessor is a plural noun
ending in s, simply adding an apostrophe after the final s indicates
possession.
The teacher was always losing her
pupils' books.
The monks' meals were served in a cold
and damp dining room.
I can never understand the politicians'
obsession with spin.
The positioning of the apostrophe makes
a big difference to the meaning of the sentence. Make sure when adding the
apostrophe that it indicates your intended meaning very precisely.
The monk's meals were served in
a cold, damp room. (one monk)
The monks' meals were served in
a cold, damp room. (lots of monks)
If the plural noun does not end in an
s, the addition of -'s shows possession.
The children's books lay on the table.
The men's boots were lined up outside
the door.
The women's race will take place before
the children's race.
Have you seen James' book?
Have you seen James's book?
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